Figure 1. The four distinct phases of intravenous fluid therapy for humans with critical illness (Malbrain et al, 2020).

Care of the acute kidney injury patient

The causes of acute kidney injury can be divided into three categories:.

Figure 1. Grapes and dried fruit can cause renal failure in dogs.

Poisons affecting the kidney

Poisoning can result in adverse effects on the kidney through a variety of mechanisms, including formation of toxic metabolites, interference with normal physiological process and, in some cases,...