The motivation behind a dog's failure to cope during owner absence may be varied, but there is a greater consistency in what the dog is likely to do (Table 1). From the list of signs and behaviours related to distress during separation from owners (Table 1), it can be seen that many are relatively subtle and could easily be missed by owners; not least because a dog that shows signs of distress in response to a wider range of daily events may exhibit such signs (such as pacing or quiet whining) in other contexts within the home while the owner is present. Yet, despite the relative ease of access to technical equipment that records a dog's ‘owner absent behaviours’, it is the author's experience that it can be difficult to persuade owners to provide evidence of their dog's ‘owner absent’ activity. As dogs are social obligates (Heath, 2023), a substantial percentage of domestic dogs considered by their owners to be coping with owner absence, are likely to exhibit passive signs of separation-related problems that will continue to go unnoticed, resulting in a considerable reduction in the welfare of affected dogs. In addition, many owners consider that the behaviour they observe via apps that record their dog's activity during their absence to be evidence of contentment, when behaviours such as remaining prone alongside a front door for many hours may be far from ‘normal’.
Table 1: Behaviours reported to predispose and occur during separation from owners – please note that no specific relationship is intended between specific predispositions and responses within a row.
| Predisposing factors (Denenberg, 2021) | Active owner absence responses (Bradshaw et al, 2002) | Passive or inhibited owner absence responses (Bradshaw et al, 2002) |
|---|---|---|
| Restless | Destruction of points of entrance, exit or around windows | House soiling |
| Pacing | Vocalisation – whining, barking, howling | Trembling, shaking, shivering |
| Following owner | Aggression – owner unable to leave via the door | Self-grooming, licking, self-trauma |
| Excessive excitement when an owner returns to a room or the home | Repetitive behaviours | Drooling |
| Inability to sleep or rest | Vigilance | Panting |
| Excessive responses to noises | Pacing | Licking lips |
| Excessive responses to owner or visitor movement | Moving repetitively to exit or viewing points | Inactivity, withdrawal or immobility (learned helplessness) until owner returns (Denenberg, 2021) |
| Excessive responses to changes in the environment (Lenkei, 2021) | Anxiety or even panic as owner prepares to leave | Dilated pupils |
| Increased expectation of access to resources via the owner (for example attention, toys, treats) (Lenkei, 2021) | Anorexia (Denenberg, 2021) | |
| Breeds intended to work in close visual contact with owner (Lenkei, 2021) | ||
| Dogs that are left too long or without sufficient mental stimulation (Casey, 2022) |
In 2016, Shin and Shin found that the salivary cortisol changes in dogs showing both active and passive responses to owner absence were approximately equal, suggesting that equivalent levels of distress were experienced by both groups. So, in addition to the more overt warning signs of reduced competency during social isolation, behaviours that occur throughout the dog's daily activity – such as constantly following an owner or only engaging in light sleep and jumping up at the slightest noise or indication of an owner's possible movement – require investigation. Importantly, it is likely that adult dogs, who as puppies experienced the distress of prolonged periods of social isolation (for example, as a method of preparing them for settling at night or during owner daytime absence), are likely to experience lifelong ‘owner absent’ related distress, despite the absence of obvious separation-related behaviours. The subtlety of signs shown by these more ‘passive’ responders can be hard for owners to spot (Casey, 2022), with many signs (such as tension in the face and body) being those normally associated with anxiety.
Yet, owner responses to, and motivation to resolve, separation-related problems can vary markedly. Owners who rarely have to leave their dog can remain remarkedly tolerant of the results of separation, often failing to comprehend the considerable level of distress that may be experienced by their dog. In contrast, separation-related problems may be presented as emergencies if owners are affected by neighbour's complaints, an inability to find accommodating landlords or if owners suddenly have to share a property (Casey, 2022). Not only does the tolerance and treatment of separation-related problems rely heavily upon an individual owner's patience, tolerance and ability to devote time to treatment and rehabilitation, but the daily pressures of life may cause the supply of such resources to vary. In addition, owners of affected dogs will need to heavily rely upon the social support available from family and friends who are willing to ‘dog sit’ or the financial fluidity to be able to support ‘day-care’ for their dog; resources that may only be available to a small percentage of owners.
The role of owner behaviour
Not only can owner behaviour (such as inappropriate introductions to separation or inadequate preparation of dogs to experience a sense of safety whilst alone) predispose dogs towards separation-related problems, but owner behaviour cannot be overlooked as an initiating and predisposing factor in dogs showing separation-related behaviours who are quite content to spend time away from their owners. Behaviours such as toileting, scavenging and destruction of furnishings may not be associated with distress specifically associated with an owner leaving a dog alone. Many dogs are left alone for excessive periods of time, resulting in incidents of house soiling (Casey, 2022); in addition, if a dog is unwell due to an acute or chronic condition affecting gastric or urinary systems, then an established period of absence can become ‘too long’.
Many dogs experience a motivation to scavenge within the home or to investigate areas of the home, but such behaviour is controlled and curtailed by owners when they are present with the dog; however, when owners are absent and have not provided adequate, appropriate stimulation, the dog can carry out these natural behaviours without restraint.
The role of pain and discomfort
Mills et al (2020) suggest that pain as a predisposing, initiating or maintaining factor can be involved in between 28–82% of cases referred to behaviour clinics. In separation-related problems, the effects of pain may manifest in an array of presentations, varying from an increased need for comfort from (and hence access to) owners, anxiety-related behaviours of whining, panting, inability to settle, increased reactivity to sound and other changes in the environment, to an increase in indoor toileting incidents. Frustra-tion-related displacement behaviours such as self-mutilation can be added to this list (Denenberg, 2021). Although the underlying motivation for these behaviours may be present throughout the day or night, it is while the dog is alone and without the distraction of family members that pain may become the focus of the dog's attention. Denenberg (2021) suggests that physical disorders may lead to anxiety during owner absence if, when present, owners provide help and comfort, giving examples of colitis patients that need an owner to provide access to frequent outside toileting facilities or muscular skeletal conditions such as arthritis, becoming more noticeable at rest when the owner is not present to engage with the dog.
As such, ‘hidden’ pain may be hard to spot during a short veterinary consultation. This is another aspect of owner absent behaviour where video evidence (from throughout the dog's daily routine) can be crucial to a correct diagnosis. Such evidence may give clues that may not be obvious during a consultation, such as a dog struggling to get up from rest or circling prior to dropping like a stone into a resting position (often accompanied by a dramatic sigh!) – both signs being potentially indicative of pain. If a dog has been resting during owner absence, but experiences considerable levels of pain on rising, this can result in the dog developing a fear of owner return, leading to the separation-related problem focusing on predicted return times.
The role of learning
Puppy distress on social separation from the mother may be considered to be normal and is reinforced from birth (Mills, 2013). Following its birth, the puppy experiencing a loss of proximity to its mother will initiate vocalisations that result in the mother locating the puppy. In breeding establishments that provide the mother with sufficient freedom to remain within or leave the whelping box at will, the young puppies are gradually exposed to naturally increasing periods of separation from the mother – hence, the associated distress remains within the puppies' capacity to cope (Hargrave, 2018). As puppies develop, as long as their environment is sufficiently engaging and stimulating, the increasing length of dam absence becomes less significant and the intensity of the social link between the dam and her puppies declines. Alternatively, if the dam is unable to gradually enable independence and there is a lack of alternative stimulation within the environment, the puppies will remain reliant on the presence of the dam. In such situations, the dam's absence will illicit distress (Hargrave, 2018). As specific behaviours, such as vocalisation, have previously been highly effective in soliciting the return of the dam, these behaviours have been heavily reinforced and, as such, will be repeated on future occasions of isolation.
Similarly, any behaviour that a dog distressed by, or during, owner absence is engaging in at the time of owner return, will be inadvertently reinforced. The result is the likely use of this behaviour during future separations and intensification of the behaviour (because of frustration) should it fail to hasten owner return. However, if on return, homeowners engage in punitive activity in response to the dog's ongoing behaviour or to damage that may have occurred during owner absence, the dog is likely to become anxious or fearful regarding owner return, further enhancing the dog's distress.
Coping with owner absence during old age
Denenberg (2021) suggests that small dogs reach their senior years at 12 years of age, medium sized dogs at 10 years, large dogs at 9 years and giant breed dogs at 7 years. At this stage in the dog's life, organ systems including the brain are likely to dysfunction and be prone to mutation and deterioration (Denenberg, 2021). As a result, the senior dog can be expected to experience both increased discomfort or pain and to undergo cognitive decline (accompanied by sensory impairment). As a consequence, the senior dog will feel less competent within its environment and will be further predisposed to failing to cope during owner absence. This is because of a likely enhanced need of owner proximity to provide necessary resources (for example access to attention, food and toileting opportunities) and increased sensitivity (and subsequent increased susceptibility to developing fear, anxiety or phobia) of events that may occur during owner absence (for example increased awareness of sounds that are ‘masked’ by family activity, television and the like when an owner is present). Although the cognitive and physical decline of the senior dog may result in reduced interaction with, and seeming apathy towards, owners, this does not infer that the pet experiences a reduced need of access to owners to promote coping and safety.
However, due to their declining physical and cognitive health, the prognosis for the treatment of separation-related problems can be extremely poor in the older dog and management of the senior dog that displays separation-related behaviours requires considerable patience, persistence and consistency of approach (Denenberg, 2021). Presenting signs are predominantly associated with the dog's physical and cognitive decline and hence it can be extremely difficult for owners to accept that treatment for such signs (like increased fears or anxieties, excessive night-time or owner-absent vocalisation and house-soiling) will predominantly rely upon management changes, medication for specific physical conditions and psychotropic support.
The impact of COVID-19 and what has been learned
Holland et al (2021) found that three main areas of the dog's routine were severely impacted by the social lockdown periods associated with COVID-19:
- Time spent at home
- The nature and availability of outdoor exercise
- Opportunities for training.
For puppies that joined homes during social lockdown periods, the combination of reduced opportunities to expand their concept of safety and coping within the context of a widening set of animate and inanimate stimuli, added to the increased expectation of owner availability, has had a significant impact on dog welfare and particularly in relation to the prevention of separation-related problems.
Despite many owners expressing concerns about how their dog would eventually adjust to being left alone, preparation for ‘alone time’ was not typically introduced to the routine of puppies that joined homes during the COVID-19 period (Christley et al, 2020). The study found that, in general, owners were enjoying spending more time with their dogs than usual and felt supported by their dogs during this time, but owners often failed to maintain training activities that would enhance future independence and coping when this enhanced level of interaction between owner and dog would need to reduce. Consequently, post COVID-19, the Dogs Trust study found that the dogs whose pattern of separation from owners changed the least during the COVID-19 lockdown periods, showed a markedly reduced likelihood of developing new separation-related problems (Casey, 2022).
In addition to the cases of separation-related problems that were expected to arise in puppies that had joined homes during the COVID-19 social restrictions, the author has also observed an increase in separation-related behaviours in older dogs. It is the author's opinion that the alteration in the social and physical environment that was associated with COVID-19, and in particular the altered level of exposure to the sight and sound of social activity, has left many adult dogs more vulnerable to anxieties and fears, including during owner absence (Hargrave, 2022).
Conclusions
As, by definition, separation-related problems occur in dogs while owners are absent, it is inevitable that it is the dogs whose separation-related behaviours result in problems for owners (such as toileting and destruction of household furnishings), that will be noticed by owners; for most, either resulting in treatment or relinquishment. It is likely to be these dogs that will form the bulk of the estimated 50% of dogs reported to be affected by separation-related problems. However, many other dogs will express less inconvenient, yet obvious signs (for example, excessive salivation), but as a result of the limited affect upon their owners lifestyle, the distress of these dogs may remain untreated. Yet, through better interaction with veterinary staff, owners can:
- Gain a greater understanding of how to recognise separation-related problems
- Modify their interactions with their dog
- Better manage the needs of their dog during its different lifestages
- Become more aware of their dog's medical and physical needs during owner absence.
All of these interventions will make a considerable impact upon reducing the incidence of separation-related problems with in the canine population.
KEY POINTS
- Separation-related problems can be expressed through both active and passive responses.
- The distress of dogs showing passive responses is likely to remain unrecognised and unresolved.
- Owners may inadvertently initiate separation-related problems without the involvement of a hyper-attachment between owner and dog.
- Pain can be an initiating factor for separation-related problems in a considerable number of dogs.
- Health problems may result in behaviours that occur during owner absence, but that are primarily related to the dog's health condition.
- Life stage can predispose dogs to separation-related problems.
- Learning plays an important role in the development of separation-related problems and the dog's perception of owner behaviour, both as owners prepare to leave and when they are expected to return.
Helpful sources of information for veterinary staff
Fellowship of Animal Behaviour Clinicians: Find a Behaviourist | FAB Clinicians (https://fabclinicians.org/find-a-behaviourist/)
Handouts | FAB Clinicians (https://fabclinicians.org/handouts/)
Veterinary Q and A Sessions | FAB Clinicians (https://fabclinicians.org/veterinary-q-and-a-sessions/)
Register of Certificated Clinical Animal Behaviourists (CCAB Certification Ltd):
CCAB Certification | How to become a CCAB (https://www.ccab.uk) Lincoln University's Canine Anxiety Scale: The Lincoln Canine Anxiety Scale (LCAS) available from IP Store (https://ipstore.lincoln.ac.uk/product/the-lincoln-canine-anxiety-scale-lcas)
Reconcile: Free Veterinary Webinars: Reconcile free e-learning series on separation disorder for dogs presented by Dr Sarah Heath, the UK's leading veterinary behavioural specialist (https://www.fortehealthcare.com/reconcile-e-learning-series/)
Helpful sources of information for clients
Battersea: Dealing With Stress And Separation Anxiety in Dogs | Battersea (https://www.battersea.org.uk/pet-advice/dog-care-advice/stressed-dog-care)
Dogs Trust: Separation Anxiety In Dogs | Behaviour | Dogs Trust (https://www.dogstrust.org.uk/dog-advice/understanding-your-dog/separation-anxiety-in-dogs)
PDSA: Separation anxiety in dogs - PDSA (https://www.pdsa.org.uk/pet-help-and-advice/pet-health-hub/other-veterinary-advice/separation-anxiety-in-dogs)
RSPCA: Separation Anxiety in Dogs | RSPCA (https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/dogs/behaviour/separationrelatedbehaviour)