Previously generally referred to as ‘separation anxiety’, the greater understanding of the range of factors that can result in a dog expressing problem behaviours during owner absence has resulted in the range of conditions generally falling under the broad term of separation-related problems. But, despite the wide variety of factors that may result in a dog failing to cope during the absence of its owners, one or more of the widely accepted range of separation-related behaviours can be shown in any one of many separation-related problem scenarios, often making the specific identification of causative factors extremely complex – not least as the problems, by definition, occur in the absence of the owner who subsequently is unable to provide accurate details of exactly when or why the problem behaviours occur. Despite this, figures suggest that 22–55% of companion dogs experience separation-related problems (Bradshaw et al, 2002b; Mills and Mills, 2003) at some stage in their life, and the 2022 PDSA Animal Welfare Report found 11% of the canine population to be currently suffering whilst owners are absent. With behaviour problems remaining one of the most common reasons for the relinquishment of dogs, this makes the condition, and the inconvenience to owners that is associated with separation-related problems, a substantial welfare problem for the domestic dog population.
The advantages of social living
Sociality and social connectedness are considered to be adaptive (McMillan, 2016), bringing benefits such as safety, parental care, improved food acquisition and mate procurement. For social species, being socially separated greatly increases the chances of starvation and predation; hence in many species the social state is strongly favoured, creating a selective pressure for social connectivity. Evidence suggests that, within social species, social affliation and attachment activates and rewards specific mechanisms within the brain (McMillan, 2016) and that when socially isolated, social animals experience emotional pain and a sense of a lack of safety (Bowlby, 1973).
Dogs are social obligates and companion dogs heavily rely upon their owners for both their social (which social individuals they come into contact with and which they do not) and physical (access to food, water, shelter, exercise, toileting opportunities) needs (Denenberg, 2021). Very few owners can allow their dog to continually accompany them, and hence, periods of separation from owners is part of virtually every dog's experience. Yet, within canine society, such periods of social isolation would be unlikely to occur. From birth, the puppy is reliant upon the proximity of the dam for warmth and food. Indeed, the dam is ‘primed’ to respond to the vocalisations of the distressed puppy that rolls away from its source of warmth, heavily reinforcing vocalisation as a primary response to the distress of social isolation and a tool for resolving that distress (Mills et al, 2013). With the expectation of care and the provision of social companionship being reinforced from birth, it could be questioned whether the state of being a domestic dog predisposes the animal to separation-related problems.
Failure to cope – but so many potential reasons
What seems to be universally accepted regarding the range of canine separation-related problems, is that, with only a few exceptions (such as opportunities for behaviours that owner presence usually prevents, such as scavenging or ‘boredom’-related searches for mental stimulation), they have a common underlying factor – at some stage during an owner's absence from the dog, the dog's concept of safety is impaired and the dog fails to cope (Figure 1). As such, the resultant behaviours could be considered ‘coping strategies’ (Palestrini, 2010). Because approximately 45% of owners leave their dogs every day, and 28% of dogs are left for over 4 hours at a time (Bradshaw, 2002a), impairment of welfare during owner absence is likely to affect a considerable proportion of dogs.
Mendl (2010) estimated that 50% of the dog population are subject to some form of separation-related problem at some stage during their life and, as such, the manner in which dogs’ deal with their separation from owners (whether for short or prolonged periods) could be considered to be a substantial welfare problem for the companion dog (Casey, 2022). Estimates of the incidence of separation-related problems within the canine population rely upon owner reporting and, as such, diagnosis is based largely upon owner perception and, often, upon owner inconvenience. Because of this heavy slant upon the owner's inability to cope with their dog's separation-related behaviours, the animal's underlying emotional state and welfare is often overlooked.
In addition to a dog's inability to cope during owner absence, there is also the subset of dogs that experience a strong motivation to explore their environment or to scavenge for food; behaviours that are likely to be strongly discouraged during owner presence. However, if owners who are exiting a home fail to remove resources that they value from the dog's environment and simultaneously fail to provide resources that the dog can explore and use for enrichment activities, then destruction of owner belongings, furnishings and such is to be expected during owner absence.
When considering ‘initiating factors’ such as those mentioned in Figure 1, it is important to recognise that these factors are ‘triggering’ a response within an individual, and that each individual will also have different ‘predisposing factors’ (such as genetics and the environments experienced both pre- and post-birth) that will affect temperament, capacity to ‘cope’ and the ability to recover from events, as well as the animal's resultant ‘mood’. However, pre-disposing factors are not limited to an animal's early development, and if an animal is experiencing challenges such as chronic pain, then the resultant, enhanced vulnerability to failing to cope may result in the animal showing emotions related to self-pres-ervation in a wide range of situations, including during owner absence (Horwitz and Neilson, 2007).
Are some dogs particularly predisposed to separation-related problems?
Lenkei et al (2021) list several possible causes and risk factors for the development of separation-related problems, including genetics, the puppy breeding environment (this will have both pre- and post-birth effects (Hargrave, 2018)) and the environment within the puppy's home. In their 2004 paper, Appleby and Pluijmakers explain the essential role, from the end of the puppy's third week of age, of the development of the ‘secure environmental base’; ensuring that the puppy has a wide experience of social and environmental stimuli to provide a concept of environmental coping and safety. This sense of safety enables the puppy to confidently explore and inhabit its environment and, whilst doing so, encounter an increasing set of stimuli within a framework of safety, thereby increasing its neural plasticity and general resilience. Not only does the existence of a widening set of stimuli that are associated with safety and coping reduce the likelihood of the development of anxiety and fear, but the associated, widening sense of security can be an adequate alternative to seeking access to owners at times when coping is compromised.
Additionally, it is essential that a puppy is allowed to gradually experience social isolation, within a framework that doesn't disturb the puppy's sense of safety (Casey, 2022). Many owners still appear to think that competency with social isolation will naturally develop if the young puppy is left on its own, for example, at night; however, the resulting distress can markedly disturb the puppy's developing sense of security and predispose it to further owner absent distress. Current thinking is that puppies should remain with owners, even overnight, and that separations should be gradually increased in order not to distress the puppy. One study (Manteca et al, 2016) suggests that the chronic stress associated with separation-related problems may reduce the life expectancy of affected dogs and predispose sufferers to a range of diseases. Hence, separation-related problems are a common and considerable welfare problem for the companion dog population; but traditional treatments are often complex and protracted. As a result (and possibly due to owners finding diffculty in maintaining compliance), many dogs affected by separation-related problems have been relinquished or euthanised.
Separation-related problems and noise sensitivities, fears and phobias
A comorbidity of 30–50% has been suggested between owner absence problems and sound fears (Storengen and Lingaas, 2015), with separation-related problems being seen to worsen with concurrent sensitivity to noises and noise fears worsening when a dog is left alone and an established coping strategy of seeking an owner is unavailable (Ballantyne, 2018). Holland et al's (2021) study suggested that dogs with existing sound sensitivities will be particularly vulnerable to separation-related problems if a sound event has occurred during owner absence and disturbed the dog's concept of safety within the home, predisposing to attempts to exit the home.
In the author's experience, the social restrictions associated with COVID-19 resulted in many dogs losing competencies. The upset to the previously routine daily soundscape (Hargrave, 2022) caused an increase in the incidence of sound sensitivity to everyday activities, and the resultant emotional responses of seeking (access to owners), anxiety, fear and frustration, can all enhance the emotions of panic, loss and grief if owners are unavailable during sound incidents. This situation is further intensified if pain is also involved.
Conclusions
Separation-related problems arise as a result of a wide range of predisposing and initiating conditions. The traditional allocation of the term ‘separation anxiety’ as a diagnosis for the wide range of canine behaviours that can occur during owner absence has resulted in a ‘one size fits all’ approach to treatment, that in many cases will have been less targeted than would be desirable. More recent studies have identified a need for careful observation of symptoms (necessitating video evidence, as these behaviours occur during owner absence) and assessment of why they occur. This approach enables a more accurate identification of the emotional circuits likely to be involved in initiating behaviours, in particular the recognition of the role of frustration. The combination of more accurate identification of initiating circumstances and emotional activity enables clinicians to create targeted treatment protocols with a far better prognosis for these debilitating conditions. The above article has summarised the array of circumstances that may result in a dog experiencing separation-related problems; further articles will focus on other elements found in separation-related problems and behaviours (such as owner behaviour, learning behaviour and recognising canine emotions) as well as potential, and more targeted, treatment options.
Helpful sources of information
Fellowship of Animal Behaviour Clinicians: Find a Behaviourist | FAB Clinicians, Handouts | FAB Clinicians and Veterinary Q and A Sessions | FAB Clinicians. https://fabclinicians.org
Register of Certificated Clinical Animal Behaviourists (CCAB Certification Ltd): CCAB Certification | How to become a CCAB. https://www.ccab.uk
Lincoln University's Canine Anxiety Scale: The Lincoln Canine Anxiety Scale (LCAS) available from: https://ipstore.lincoln.ac.uk/product/the-lincoln-canine-anxiety-scale-lcas
Reconcile: Free Veterinary Webinars: Reconcile free e-learning series on separation disorder for dogs presented by Dr Sarah Heath, the UK's leading veterinary behavioural specialist. fortehealthcare.com
Battersea: Dealing With Stress And Separation Anxiety in Dogs | Battersea. https://www.battersea.org.uk/pet-advice/dog-care-advice/stressed-dog-care
Dogs Trust: Separation Anxiety In Dogs | Behaviour | Dogs Trust. https://www.dogstrust.org.uk/dog-advice/understanding-your-dog/separation-anxiety-in-dogs
PDSA: Separation anxiety in dogs | PDSA. https://www.pdsa.org.uk/pet-help-and-advice/pet-health-hub/other-veterinary-advice/separation-anxiety-in-dogs
RSPCA: Separation Anxiety in Dogs | RSPCA. https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/dogs/behaviour/separationrelatedbehaviour
KEY POINTS
- Dogs can exhibit an array of separation related behaviours during owner absence.
- The behaviours presented by owners as separation related problems may not all be resultant of the dog experiencing distress.
- Not all separation related behaviours are exhibited as a result of a hyper-attachment to an owner.
- Dogs can experience distress during owner absence due to the activation of an array of, often concurrent, emotional systems.
- The activation of circuits associated with anxiety are not necessarily required for the existence of separation related problems or the expression of separation related behaviours.
- Successful treatment of separation related problems relies upon identification of the factors initiating the separation related behaviours and their associated emotional circuits.